Friedman, J. The evolution of annual and perennial plant life histories: ecological correlates and genetic mechanisms. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 51, 461–481 (2020).
Google Scholar
Raunkiær, C. Über das Biologische Normalspektrum (Andr. Fred. Host & Son, Kgl. Hof-Boghandel, 1918).
Glover, J. D. et al. Increased food and ecosystem. Science 328, 1638–1640 (2010).
Google Scholar
Vico, G., Manzoni, S., Nkurunziza, L., Murphy, K. & Weih, M. Trade-offs between seed output and life span—a quantitative comparison of traits between annual and perennial congeneric species. N. Phytol. 209, 104–114 (2016).
Google Scholar
Whittaker, R. H. Communities and Ecosystems (Macmillan, 1975).
Crawley, M. J. Plant Ecology (Blackwell Science, Oxford, 1997).
Begon, M., Townsend, C. R. & Harper, J. L. Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems (John Wiley & Sons, 2021).
Gurevitch, J., Scheiner, S. M. & Fox, G. A. The Ecology of Plants (Oxford Univ. Press, 2021).
Salguero-Gómez, R. et al. Fast-slow continuum and reproductive strategies structure plant life-history variation worldwide. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 113, 230–235 (2016).
Google Scholar
Garnier, E. & Vancaeyzeele, S. Carbon and nitrogen content of congeneric annual and perennial grass species: relationships with growth. Plant. Cell Environ. 17, 399–407 (1994).
Google Scholar
Roumet, C., Urcelay, C. & Díaz, S. Suites of root traits differ between annual and perennial species growing in the field. N. Phytol. 170, 357–368 (2006).
Google Scholar
Funk, J. L., Standish, R. J., Stock, W. D. & Valladares, F. Plant functional traits of dominant native and invasive species in mediterranean-climate ecosystems. Ecology. 97, 75–83 (2016).
Google Scholar
Murray, B. R., Thrall, P. H., Gill, A. M. & Nicotra, A. B. How plant life-history and ecological traits relate to species rarity and commonness at varying spatial scales. Austral Ecol. 27, 291–310 (2002).
Google Scholar
Rice, A. et al. The global biogeography of polyploid plants. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 3, 265–273 (2019).
Google Scholar
Grman, E., Lau, J. A., Schoolmaster, D. R. & Gross, K. L. Mechanisms contributing to stability in ecosystem function depend on the environmental context. Ecol. Lett. 13, 1400–1410 (2010).
Google Scholar
Glover, J. D., Reganold, J. P. & Cox, C. M. Plant perennials to save Africa’s soils. Nature 489, 359–361 (2012).
Google Scholar
Kreitzman, M., Toensmeier, E., Chan, K. M. A., Smukler, S. & Ramankutty, N. Perennial staple crops: yields, distribution, and nutrition in the global food system. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 4, 216 (2020).
Google Scholar
Ledo, A. et al. Changes in soil organic carbon under perennial crops. Glob. Change Biol. 26, 4158–4168 (2020).
Google Scholar
Bar-On, Y. M., Phillips, R. & Milo, R. The biomass distribution on Earth. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 115, 6506–6511 (2018).
Google Scholar
Foley, J. A. et al. Global consequences of land use. Science 309, 570–574 (2005).
Google Scholar
Erb, K. H. et al. Unexpectedly large impact of forest management and grazing on global vegetation biomass. Nature 553, 73–76 (2018).
Google Scholar
Pimentel, D. et al. Annual vs. perennial grain production. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 161, 1–9 (2012).
Google Scholar
Humphreys, A. M., Govaerts, R., Ficinski, S. Z., Nic Lughadha, E. & Vorontsova, M. S. Global dataset shows geography and life form predict modern plant extinction and rediscovery. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 3, 1043–1047 (2019).
Google Scholar
Friedman, J. & Rubin, M. J. All in good time: understanding annual and perennial strategies in plants. Am. J. Bot. 102, 497–499 (2015).
Google Scholar
Cole, L. C. The population consequences of life history phenomena. Q. Rev. Biol. 29, 103–137 (1954).
Google Scholar
Charnov, E. L. & Schaffer, W. M. Life-history consequences of natural selection: Cole’s result revisited. Am. Nat. 107, 791–793 (1973).
Google Scholar
World Flora Online (WFO, 2023); http://www.worldfloraonline.org.
Díaz, S. et al. Pervasive human-driven decline of life on Earth points to the need for transformative change. Science 366, eaax3100 (2019).
Grimm, N. B. et al. The impacts of climate change on ecosystem structure and function. Front. Ecol. Environ. 11, 474–482 (2013).
Google Scholar
Hooper, D. U. et al. Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of current knowledge. Ecol. Monogr. 75, 3–35 (2005).
Google Scholar
Chapin III, F. S. et al. Consequences of changing biodiversity. Nature 405, 234–242 (2000).
Google Scholar
Weiskopf, S. R. et al. Climate change effects on biodiversity, ecosystems, ecosystem services, and natural resource management in the United States. Sci. Total Environ. 733, 137782 (2020).
Datson, P. M., Murray, B. G. & Steiner, K. E. Climate and the evolution of annual/perennial life-histories in Nemesia (Scrophulariaceae). Plant Syst. Evol. 270, 39–57 (2008).
Google Scholar
Evans, M. E. K., Hearn, D. J., Hahn, W. J., Spangle, J. M. & Venable, D. L. Climate and life-history evolution in evening primroses (Oenothera, Onagraceae): a phylogenetic comparative analysis. Evolution. 59, 1914–1927 (2005).
Google Scholar
Zeineddine, M. & Jansen, V. A. A. To age, to die: parity, evolutionary tracking and Cole’s paradox. Evolution 63, 1498–1507 (2009).
Google Scholar
Cruz-Mazo, G., Buide, M. L., Samuel, R. & Narbona, E. Molecular phylogeny of Scorzoneroides (Asteraceae): evolution of heterocarpy and annual habit in unpredictable environments. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 53, 835–847 (2009).
Google Scholar
Murphy, G. I. Pattern in life history and the environment. Am. Nat. 102, 391–403 (1968).
Google Scholar
Díaz, S. et al. Plant trait responses to grazing—a global synthesis. Glob. Change Biol. 13, 313–341 (2007).
Google Scholar
Herben, T., Klimešová, J. & Chytrý, M. Effects of disturbance frequency and severity on plant traits: an assessment across a temperate flora. Funct. Ecol. 32, 799–808 (2018).
Google Scholar
Pianka, E. R. On r-and K-selection. Am. Nat. 104, 592–597 (1970).
Google Scholar
Whittaker, R. H. Communities and Ecosystems (Macmillan, 1970).
Salinger, M. J. Climate variability and change: past, present and future—an overview. Climatic Change 70, 9–29 (2005).
Maitner, B. S. et al. The bien r package: a tool to access the Botanical Information and Ecology Network (BIEN) database. Methods Ecol. Evol. 9, 373–379 (2018).
Google Scholar
Tavşanoğlu, Ç. & Pausas, J. G. A functional trait database for Mediterranean basin plants. Sci. Data. 5, 180135 (2018).
Parr, C. S. et al. The Encyclopedia of Life v2: providing global access to knowledge about life on earth. Biodivers. Data J. 29, e1079 (2014).
Engemann, K. et al. A plant growth form dataset for the new world. Ecology 97, 3243 (2016).
Google Scholar
World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, accessed 20 July 2021); http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/.
Kleyer, M. et al. The LEDA traitbase: a database of life-history traits of the northwest European flora. J. Ecol. 96, 1266–1274 (2008).
Google Scholar
Taseski, G. M. et al. A global growth-form database for 143,616 vascular plant species. Ecology 53, 2614 (2019).
Kattge, J. et al. TRY plant trait database—enhanced coverage and open access. Glob. Change Biol. 26, 119–188 (2020).
Google Scholar
Dauby, G. et al. RAINBIO: a mega-database of tropical African vascular plants distributions. PhytoKeys. 74, 1–18 (2016).
Google Scholar
National Plant Data Team. The PLANTS Database (USDA, NRCS, accessed 23 May 2021); http://plants.usda.gov.
Kindt, R. WorldFlora: an R package for exact and fuzzy matching of plant names against the World Flora Online taxonomic backbone data. Appl. Plant Sci. 8, e11388 (2020).
Google Scholar
GBIF Occurrence Download (GBIF, 2021); https://doi.org/10.15468/dl.5d7wa2.
Zizka, A. et al. CoordinateCleaner: standardized cleaning of occurrence records from biological collection databases. Methods Ecol. Evol. 10, 744–751 (2019).
Google Scholar
Olson, D. M. et al. Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on Earth: a new global map of terrestrial ecoregions provides an innovative tool for conserving biodiversity. Bioscience. 51, 933–938 (2001).
Google Scholar
Hijmans, R. J. raster: geographic data analysis and modeling. R package version 3.4-13 (2021); https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=raster.
Bivand, R., Keitt, T. & Rowlingson, B. rgdal: bindings for the ‘geospatial’ data abstraction library. R package version 1.5-27 (2021); https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=rgdal.
Fick, S. E. & Hijmans, R. J. WorldClim 2: new 1-km spatial resolution climate surfaces for global land areas. Int. J. Climatol. 37, 4302–4315 (2017).
Google Scholar
Venter, O. et al. Sixteen years of change in the global terrestrial human footprint and implications for biodiversity conservation. Nat. Commun. 7, 12558 (2016).
Barton, K. Mu-MIn: multi-model inference. R package version 1.43.17 (2009); http://R-Forge.R-project.org/projects/mumin/.
Smith, S. A. & Brown, J. W. Constructing a broadly inclusive seed plant phylogeny. Am. J. Bot. 105, 302–314 (2018).
Google Scholar
Dray, S. et al. Community ecology in the age of multivariate multiscale spatial analysis. Ecol. Monogr. 82, 257–275 (2012).
Google Scholar
Dray, S. et al. adespatial: multivariate multiscale spatial analysis. R package version 0.3-21 (2023); https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=adespatial.
Sellar, A. A. et al. UKESM1: description and evaluation of the U.K. Earth system model. J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst. 11, 4513–4558 (2019).
Google Scholar